Crassus had been appointed governor of the Roman province of Syria, and, seeking to emulate his hero Alexander the Great and eager to gain a measure of glory comparable to that enjoyed by Gaius Julius Caesar in Gaul, he resolved to conquer Parthia and make it a Roman province.
After conquering Mesopotamia the previous summer, Crassus re-crossed the Euphrates river in the Spring of 53 BC, accompanied by 42,000 - 46,000 Roman Legionaries and auxiliaries and 4,000 cavalry. One thousand of the cavalry were Gallic tribesmen from what is now France. He was also counting on receiving further troops from King Astavades of Armenia.
Crassus marched his vast army across the plains of Mesopotamia. The help promised him by King Astavades never materialised - the Parthian King, Orodes 2, marched his army into Armenia, and, backed by this show of force, arranged an alliance with Astavades. Another Parthian force, under the command of a general by the name of Surena, took 1,000 heavy cavalry and 10,000 horse archers toward Harranu (known to the Romans as Carrhae).
A few miles from Carrhae, an advance guard of Roman cavalry was destroyed by Surena’s army. Crassus adopted defensive tactics and formed his army into a vast hollow square, screened by light infantry and cavalry.
The Parthian Army
The Parthians possessed an all-cavalry army. Their lightly armed horse-archers drew powerful recurved composite bows and a skilled archer could loose up to 12 arrows a minute. They could also twist in their saddles to loose arrows as they galloped away from an enemy, a tactic known today as the ’Parthian shot’. They were experts at harassing less mobile foes and conducting feigned withdrawals.
The brutal heavyweights of the Parthian army were the cataphracts. These were warriors clad in heavy metal scale armour and helmets with face protection. Their horses were also armoured. They wielded lances up to 12 feet in length. Cataphracts could allegedly impale 2 men with one blow.
The Battle of Carrhae
Surena concealed his cataphracts by having them cover their armour with skins and clothing. He then ordered them to cast aside their covers and the resulting glare of sun on steel must have been unnerving to the Romans. The cataphracts made a thunderous cavalry charge into the Roman lines. Despite the terrible impact, the Romans managed to plug the gaps. The lancers were forced to withdraw.
Surena then ordered his 10,000 horse archers to encircle the Roman army and the resulting arrow storm was unlike anything the Romans had ever encountered. To make matters worse, the Parthians were supplied by a steady camel train bringing fresh ammunition. Unable to come to grips with their foe, the Romans had no alternative but to stand and endure the hideous barrage. Parthian arrows literally darkened the sky, pinning shields to arms and pegging Legionaries' feet to the ground.
In an attempt to alleviate the misery, Crassus ordered his son Publius to attack. Publius duly attempted to engage the nimble Parthians with 3 cohorts of infantry and his Gallic cavalry. The lightly armoured Gauls were no match for the cataphracts but nevertheless fought with tremendous courage. They pulled up the skirts of the cataphracts horse armour and attempted to plunge their swords into the horses bellies.
Despite their bravery, Publius’ force was annihilated and Crassus was forced to watch as the Parthians displayed his sons head on a lance. And the arrow storm continued.
The Romans hung tight until nightfall before attempting to retreat toward Carrhae. Surena offered terms of surrender but negotiations broke down and Crassus was slain in the confusion that followed. His head was taken to Orodes who ordered that molten gold be poured down Crassus’s dead mouth.
The Romans had lost 20,000 - 30,000 men on the battlefield and 10,000 captured. Perhaps 500 Romans managed to return home. Those captured never saw home again: they were relocated by their Parthian conquerors to central Asia. The captured standards of the Legions were displayed in Parthian temples.
The might of the Roman military machine lay in its superbly trained and disciplined infantry. The Roman Legionary was possibly the finest infantryman in the ancient world. But at Carrhae, they were facing a cavalry force the like of which they had never encountered before. Carrhae was a terrible blow to Roman martial pride, and one which she would never forget.
Shadows in the Desert Ancient Persia at War
Dr Kaveh Farrokh
Osprey, 2007
Terry Jones' Barbarians
Terry Jones and Alan Ereira
BBC Books, 2006
